{1} To get the maximum benefit from this program, read every Loglan utterance out loud. You should work in a place where this is possible. When making Loglan responses, please speak them aloud as well. Do this before or as you type them. When making English responses, it is good to read the Loglan utterance aloud before you translate it. To refresh your memory, the six vowel letters are pronounced in the following ways: a [ah] as in 'father' o [oh] as in 'note' e [eh] as in 'met' u [oo] as in 'lute' i [ee] as in 'machine' y [uh] as in 'up' Say 'farfu' [FAHR-foo], 'denli' [DEN-lee], 'dotra' [DOHT-rah], 'mekykiu' [MEH- kuh-kyoo], 'fumna' [FOOM-nah], and 'nirli' [NEER-lee]. {2} Some common vowel pairs are pronounced as follows: ao [ow] as in 'cow' or 'ouch' ei [ay] as in 'day' or 'sleigh' ai [igh] as in 'sigh' or 'kite' oi [oy] as in 'boy' Say 'kao' [kow], 'kai' [kigh], 'kei' [kay] and 'koi' [koy]. Speak 's' and 'n' before each of these same vowel pairs: 'sao' [sow], 'sai' [sigh], 'sei' [say], 'soi' [soy]; 'nao' [now], 'nai' [nigh], 'nei' [nay], 'noi' [noy]. When initial in a vowel pair, 'i' and 'u' are pronounced as [y] and [w]. For example, 'ia' is [yah], 'ie' [yeh], 'ii' [yee], 'io' [yoh] and 'iu' [yoo]; 'ua' is [wah], 'ue' [weh], 'ui' [wee], 'uo' [woh] and 'uu' [woo]. Please speak all these words aloud. {3} All other vowel pairs are pronounced as two syllables. Sometimes both syllables are unstressed, but usually one or the other is stressed. Here are the ways these two-syllable pairs are pronounced. Please speak each way aloud: aa [ah-AH] or [AH-ah] eu [eigh-oo eigh-OO EIGH-oo] ae [ah-eh ah-EH AH-eh] oa [oh-ah oh-AH AH-oh] au [ah-oo ah-OO AH-oo] oe [oh-eh oh-EH OH-eh] ea [eigh-ah eigh-AH EIGH-ah] oo [oh-OH OH-oh] ee [eigh-EH EIGH-eh] ou [oh-oo oh-OO OH-oo] eo [eigh-oh eigh-OH EIGH-oh] Notice that when 'e' is initial in a vowel-pair, it is pronounced as [eigh] in 'eight'. Speak the 'e'-initial pairs again. The 'i'- and 'u'-initial pairs may also be pronounced as two syllables if this makes a new word easier for you to pronounce. Thus [loo-ee] and [nee-oo] are alternative pronunciations of 'lui' and 'niu', although you may eventually come round to [lwee] and [nyoo]. {4} With the exception of 'c' and 'j', the consonant letters are pronounced as they typically are in English. The exceptional letters are pronounced as follows: c [sh] as in 'sheep' and in tc [ch] as in 'chew' j [zh] as in 'azure' and in dj [j] as in 'joke' or [dg] as in 'badger'. Say 'hapci' [HAHP-shee], 'junti' [ZHOON-tee], 'ci' [shee], 'botci' [BOHT-chee], 'ji' [zhee], 'djan' [JAHN], 'jue' [zhweh], 'cue' [shweh], 'tcena' [TCEH-nah]. {5} There are three classes of Loglan words: LITTLE WORDS, PREDICATES, and NAMES. LITTLE WORDS are short words that end in vowels and contain no adjacent consonants. There are four basic forms of them: 'a'-form, 'ia'-form, 'da'- form and 'tai'-form words. Combinations, such as 'anoi' and 'papa', also count as little words. PREDICATES are words that are vowel-final and contain at least one consonant pair ('prano', 'stali', 'mrenu'). Some predicates are "borrowings" and imitate natural source words ('iglu', 'vertebrati'). All predicates are stressed on their next-to-last syllables: [MREH-noo], [vehr- teh-BRAH-tee]. NAMES are always consonant-final ('Djan' = 'John'), have next- to-last-syllable stress unless marked, and are spelled as naturally pronounced "at home": 'Deutschland' => 'Doitclant'. If the corresponding natural name ends in a vowel, add 's': 'Barbara' => 'Ba'rbrrys' [BAHR-brr-uhs]. Pronounce these little words: 'a', 'mi', 'to' [toh], 'toi' [toy] and 'toa' [TOH-ah]. These predicates: 'fumna', 'nirli', 'insulini' [een-soo-LEEN-nee]. And these names: 'Djois' [joyss], 'Rrll' [RR-ll], 'Lo,is' [LOH-ees], 'Pari's' [pahr-REES], 'Ame'rikys' [ah-MEHR-ree-kuhss]. {6} We start our study of Loglan utterances with the simplest kind of utterance, the IMPERATIVES. These are simple sentences without tenses or subjects. Often they consist of single predicates: 'Godzi' = 'Go!' Or they may be predicates with single arguments: 'Godzi ta' = 'Go to that place!' or 'Go there!' Speakers often indicate their attitudes (hopes, desires, intentions, convictions) by using INDICATORS (little words like 'eo' 'ao' 'ai' 'ae') in front of imperatives: 'Eo godzi' = 'Please go.' But indicators can be used on any kind of Loglan sentence, and anywhere in that sentence. {7} When in initial positions, indicators like 'Ai' modify the rest of the utterance. In the case of 'Ai no', this is the single word 'no'. In non- initial positions, as in the expression 'No ai', which is coming next, indicators modify the single word they immediately follow. In the case of 'No ai', this will still be the word 'no'. So 'No ai' and 'Ai no' mean substan- tially the same thing. The 'Ai no' word-order is the one most often used alone, or at the heads of sentences. The 'No ai'-order is the one used in the interiors of sentences. In interior positions 'ai' modifies not the whole sentence, but the word that just precedes it. Thus 'No ai' has the sense of 'NO, certainly', which emphasizes the negation. 'Ai no' has the sense of 'I CERTAINLY won't...' or 'I INTEND that it not be the case that...', which emphasizes the strong intention. These rules apply to all other attitude-indicating words. All modify the immediately preceding word if there is one. So when initial or alone they may be taken to modify the whole current or preceding utterance. {8} When a sentence is negative, the word 'no' typically precedes the subject (called the "first argument" in Loglan grammar). But if there is an indicator in the sentence, and its sense is to apply to the whole negative remark, it usually precedes the 'no'. {9} To understand greeting words, and to show how names may be used with them as attention-callers--VOCATIVES in Loglan grammar--we introduce 'Hello' and 'Goodbye' ('Loi' and 'Loa'). We'll also encounter a few more indicator words ('ea' 'oi') in the next few items, as well as the words for 'Thanks' and 'You're welcome' ('sia' 'siu'). Pausing before names used as vocatives is also obligatory in Loglan. So in making written Loglan responses, you must remember to type in commas--later, periods will also do this work--to represent the pauses that are required in the spoken language. If you forget one of these obligatory commas, MacTeach will score your answer INCORRECT! It will be up to you to figure out that a left-out comma was your error. {10} The distinction between ADDRESSING and NAMING in Loglan is made with the name operator 'la'. 'La' is used before a name when it is used to talk about the thing named, i.e., to name it. 'La' is dropped when the name is used to call the attention of the named thing or person, i.e., as a vocative or to address a sentence for the attention of a particular listener. Names used as addresses may appear anywhere in an utterance, but when they follow other names, they must be preceded by 'Hoi' to prevent their being absorbed into the preceding name. {11} There are many Loglan words for English 'the'. They are all called DESCRIPTORS since they produce descriptions. The simplest descriptor is 'le'. It designates a particular individual or set of individuals. Another common descriptor is 'lo', which designates the mass of all instances having some predicated property, or any manifestation of such a mass. The grammar of the MASS DESCRIPTOR 'lo' is exactly like that of 'le'. When the subject of a predicate is a description, and the predicate is otherwise unmarked, then a special PUNCTUATOR, 'ga', is used to mark the boundary between the description and that predicate. 'Ga' may often be translated by either English 'is' or 'are'. {12} We now need the little word 'he' [heh], the PREDICATE INTERROGATIVE. A question formed with 'he' asks that 'he' itself be replaced with a predicate word as the answer. In the answering utterances, the third person VARIABLE 'da' ('it/he/she/they/them') is introduced. 'Da' can also be translated by the mathematician's 'X'. Days of the weeks, months of the year, and the seasons are also introduced here. For example, 'monday' = 'first-day' is made from 'ner-' + '-dei'. These parts are in turn derived from 'ne' = 'one' and 'denli' = 'day'. The predicates for the rest of the weekdays and the months of the year are made in the same way. {13} The INTERROGATIVE ARGUMENT is 'hu', a word which means either 'who' or 'what'. Another kind of question-word allows us to ask for the identity of something in an already identified set: 'ie' = 'which' or 'which one of...'. {14} IDENTITY SENTENCES equate two designations that designate the same thing or person. They always involve one of the IDENTITY OPERATORS like 'bi' = 'is/equals' or 'is the same thing as'. Words for mealtimes and foods are introduced in this section. {15} When we need a second variable in addition to 'da' for 'X', we use 'de' for 'Y'. Both 'da' and 'de' are free of all implications of gender, number, person, and case. We'll also need the DEMONSTRATIVE "proverbs" 'dui' and 'dua', which also have the same final vowels as the other demonstratives 'ti' and 'ta'. 'Dui' and 'dua' are used to replace the most recent predicate expression. They may often be translated by English 'do' and 'does'. {16} Next we take up the 'Yes/No' questions made with 'ei' [eigh-ee], and their answers 'ia' and 'no' or 'no ia'. In addition, two new demonstratives, 'toi' and 'toa', are introduced. These two pronouns designate whole utterances, the most recent one by 'toi' [toy], and any earlier one by 'toa' [toh-ah]. Like all demonstratives, they are temporary designations, and may be replaced by 'da' and 'de' if discussion of their referents is to continue. Note in this segment how the connective 'I' plays the role of the English full stop or period. {17} In Loglan the simple past tense ('pa'), the simple present tense ('na'), and the simple future tense ('fa') may be formed for any predicate by putting one of these TENSE OPERATORS in front of that predicate. Tense operators may also be used prepositionally and adverbially. TIME INTERROGATIVES like 'nahu' and 'fahu' ('at what?' = 'when?' and 'after what?') may also be made with them. The tense of the question is assumed in the answer. The LINKING WORD, 'ji', is like a hyphen that binds two arguments into a single argument. Tense words like 'pa' 'na' 'fa' may also be used as prepositions to make time phrases. When the suffixes '-zi' 'za' and '-zu' are attached to time words, they mean short, medium and long duration. Travel words are also introduced in this section. {18} Space questions and answers are formed in the same way as time questions and answers by using the SPATIAL OPERATORS 'vi' ('here'), 'va' ('nearby'), and 'vu' ('far away') in exactly the same ways as 'na' 'pa' and 'fa'. {19} We now take up utterances that involve EXISTENTIAL and UNIVERSAL QUANTIFICATION. Phrases like 'some' and 'there are' are the existential quantifiers of English, and words like 'all', 'each' and 'every' are its universal quantifiers. In Loglan, existential claims are formed with 'ba' 'be' 'bo' and 'bu', and universal ones with compounds made from 'ra' ('all') followed by 'ba' 'be' 'bo' or 'bu'. 'Ba' (often represented by lower case 'x') is used when there is need for only one non-designating variable; 'be' ('y') when we need two, 'bo' ('w') for three, and 'bu' ('q') for four. The words for many body parts are introduced here. {20} The compound little words 'Ifeu' ('In fact') and 'Inusoa' ('Therefore') are introduced next. They allow some inferences to be made from utterances with incomplete predicates. Note that 'Inusoa', like all words that commence with 'I-', belongs to the word-group ("lexeme") whose members all function like the English full-stop. The phrase 'nibe' ('zero somethings y') is introduced as a negative quantification. {21} GROUPING and INVERSION with 'ge' and 'go'. This segment deals with the grammar of metaphor: the pattern of modification within predicate strings. The most common order of modification in Loglan is the "Adjective-Noun" word-order in which the modifier precedes its modificand (the word modified). Just as in English, in the absence of special marks, the first predicate (say 'very') in a string of predicates modifies the second (say 'strong'); the first two together modify the third ('very strong woman'); and so on. In Loglan, the grouping operator 'ge' breaks up this pattern--it is the unmarked pattern in both English and Loglan--and causes whatever is on its left to modify whatever is on its right. Thus, while 'mutce forli fumna' means 'is a very strong woman', 'mutce ge forli fumna' means 'is extreme for a strong woman'; for 'mutce' now modifies 'forli fumna'. The normal "Adjective-Noun" modification order may also be inverted by 'go'. When a 'go' appears in a predicate string, the normally left-hand portion of the string appears on its right, the normally right-hand portion on its left. Thus the punctuator 'go' marks the point at which the reordering occurs. Thus 'forli fumna go mutce' means 'is a strong woman who is extreme (for one)'. It makes exactly the same claim as 'mutce ge forli fumna'. {22} HYPHENATION and CONNECTION with 'ci' 'ce' 'ca' 'ke' 'ka' and 'ki'. The linking word 'ci' also has a special role in Loglan. It is used rather like an English hyphen between pairs of predicate units to make larger predicate units inside predicate strings. Such hyphenated units function as single modifiers or modificands. Predicate-word connectives, like 'ce' [sheh] ('and') and 'ca' [shah] ('or'), are also introduced, as are "keks" like 'ka' and 'ke', which are used to make forethought connections. Thus 'ka' announces that a connection is to be made and specifies its logical type; then the special infix 'ki' comes along to mark the boundary between the two connected elements. Thus 'ka...ki...' means 'either...and/or...' and 'ke...ki...' means 'both...and...'. {23} Other markers and connectives are 'cue' 'cui' 'canoi' and 'kanoi'. 'Cue' is an optional right parenthesis that occurs only inside predicate strings and is always matched with some 'ge' on its left. Its effect is to shorten the rightward scope of that 'ge'. 'Cui' is an optional left parenthesis that also occurs only inside predicate strings. 'Cui' is always matched with some shek (predicate-word connective) on its right. Its effect is to extend the leftward scope of that shek. Two compound connectives are introduced. These are 'canoi' and 'kanoi', both of which mean 'if'. 'Canoi' is used to join predicate words in an afterthought, left-grouped way, and 'kanoi..ki...' means 'if...then...', and, like all keks, may be used in a forethought way to connect any kind of element whatsoever. {24} EVENT-STATE PREDICATES: The most common abstracting operation in natural language is the one that turns an ordinary predicate into one that predicates an event or state-of-affairs: 'is an event of...'. Gerunds (with '-ing') and infinitives (with 'to') do most of this work in English. In Loglan, event/- state predicates are formed with 'po'. 'Pu' and 'zo' produce two more varieties of Loglan abstraction. They have grammars identical to the Loglan grammar of events. 'Pu' forms the property abstraction ('is a quality of...'), and 'zo' forms the quantity one ('is an amount of...). . 'Di' ('Z') is added as the third replacing variable. {25} In English, nouns like 'water', 'mud' and 'milk' are MASS TERMS which designate the individuals formed by taking all the instances of their predicates ('is water', 'is mud', 'is milk) together as a lump. In Loglan, one uses the mass descriptor 'lo' to form mass terms. The EVENT DESCRIPTOR 'lepo' is formed out of 'le' + 'po', and the MASS EVENT DESCRIPTOR 'lopo' is formed out of 'lo' + 'po'. 'Gu' is used to terminate LEPO clauses in addition to its other duties. {26} CONVERSION (the generalized passive) means shifting the meanings of the arguments of multiplace Loglan predicates around. 'Nu' exchanges the meanings of the 1st and 2nd places of such predicates, and 'fu' exchanges the meanings of 1st and 3rd places. The Loglan superlative is formed by negating a converse: 'no nu'. It always means "not betterable" on some dimension established by the following predicate. The five 'u'-initial attitude indicators--'uo' = annoyance, 'ue' = surprise, 'ua' = satisfaction, 'uu' = sorrow, 'ui' = gladness)--are introduced here. {27} In considering NUMERICAL operations, we will cover counting, then quantifying descriptions and then asking numerical questions. The ten little words 'ni ne to te fo fe so se vo ve' are the digit words, that is, the words translated by 'zero one two three four five six seven eight nine'in English, or, alternatively, by the ten digit numerals: '0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9'. These are used to form compound number words: 'neni' ('10') = 'ten', 'nene' ('11') = 'eleven', etc. Double zero is 'ma', so '100' is 'nema'. Triple zero is 'mo', so 'nemo' = '1000'. The QUANTIFIER INTERROGATIVE 'ho' asks 'How many?' or 'How many of?'. It asks for a quantifier--numerical or non-numerical--as an answer. We now complete the set of non-numerical quantifiers: 're' = 'most', 'ru' = 'enough', 'ri' = 'several/a few'. In addition, 'sa' = 'approximately/nearly (all)', 'si' = 'at most (one of)', 'su' = 'at least (one of'), may be used either to form compounds with other numbers ('sanema' = 'around a hundred') or alone with certain default values understood. For example, 'sa' alone means 'almost all'. {28} When 'ie' is the prefix to a number, it has the sense of 'Which..of..?' The special descriptor 'lio' ('the number...') designates numbers and measured quantities. This segment also introduces counting and the words for many animals and articles of clothing. Also new are expressions reporting age and time. {29} Time is measured with a twenty-four hour clock in Loglan, and reported in four-digit numbers: '1320' = '1:20pm'. The new day begins, by international convention, just after midnite of the previous day. Thus midnight is 2400, but 0001 is one minute into the new day. Words for talking about the various aspects of clocktime are introduced, including the one for the time-of-day itself. The time-of-day is of course is the clocktime that has elapsed since the preceding midnight. This is 'jolkeo' in Loglan, a word derived from 'jokla ckemo' = 'clock-interval' or 'clock- time'. Similarly, 'hour' is 'horto', 'minute' is 'minta', and 'second' is 'sekmi', and these units may be abbreviated as 'hei' ('h'), 'mei' ('m') and 'sei' ('s'), respectively, in talking about times. The concepts of 'nea' and 'niu' ('negative' and 'minus') and 'piu' ('plus') are introduced to talk about minutes "before" or "after" some whole hour. {30} Typing commas after written names, and pausing after spoken ones, is said to be "obligatory" in Loglan. That is, you will not always be understood unless you do pause or punctuate in this way. This is especially likely to be true when your interlocutor is a machine. You will need to remember this when typing Loglan sentences for THIS machine to read if they happen to contain names. {31} Sometimes the mass descriptor 'lo' should be translated by English 'the', as in the next sentence. {32} In that last sentence, English 'the' meant 'another manifestation of', and that is exactly what the Loglan 'lo', which it translates, also means in this context. Thus 'lo bradei je la Linkyn' means 'the mass individual composed of all of Lincoln's birthdays', and that, of course, is what is being celebrated. Notice that 'lo tormea', 'lo merki' and 'lo bradei' need to having matching descriptors in order to make sense out of this claim. 'Lo tormea', 'lo merki' and 'le bradei' wouldn't make much sense. {33} Connectives of certain kinds, including the 'a e o u'-series and their compounds, are like vocatively-used names in that they are also preceded by pauses in speech and commas in text. Watch for this in speaking and typing Loglan sentences with connected parts like the next one. {34} In English we say 'What is THE time?' and 'THE time is 2:30' as if there were only one proper clocktime for each interval we measure with clocks. But that is obviously not the case. There are many possible clocktimes for any given interval: accurate ones, inaccurate ones; approximate and precise ones; and so on. Thus the Loglan predicate 'jolkeo' is most accurately translated 'is a clocktime measuring the interval ending at...and starting at...'; and obviously there can be many of these. Even so, since we are teaching English- speakers with this program, we must accommodate English speechways. So we allow the rough equivalence of English expressions like 'is the time of' and the Loglan word 'jolkeo'. Indeed, the program will now accept them as satisfactory translations. But it is wise to keep in mind that the Loglan word 'jolkeo', unlike most English time expressions, is a general term...even though it is one we will often have to translate into idiomatic English as an identity between singular terms.